Mountains
Definition: large, elevated features rising prominently above surrounding terrain.
Process: Mostly formed by plate convergence (folding, faulting) or volcanism; some are uplifted blocks along faults.
- Himalayas (India/Nepal/Tibet) — continental collision
- Andes (S. America) — subduction margin
- Alps (Europe) — collision & folding
Map clues
Linear belts along plate boundaries; parallel ridges and deep valleys; youthful rivers with high relief.
Volcanoes
Definition: vents where magma reaches the surface, building cones or shields.
Process: Subduction zones, rifts, and hotspots melt mantle rock; repeated eruptions build volcanic landforms.
- Mauna Loa (Hawaiʻi) — hotspot shield volcano
- Mount Fuji (Japan) — subduction stratovolcano
- Nyiragongo (DRC) — rift-related volcanism
Map clues
Isolated cones or arcuate chains; radial drainage; young lava fields and ash deposits.
Plateaus
Definition: broad, elevated, relatively flat regions.
Process: Uplift of large crustal blocks; volcanic lava plains; or deep erosion isolating high surfaces.
- Tibetan Plateau — uplifted by India–Eurasia collision
- Deccan Plateau (India) — flood basalts
- Colorado Plateau (USA) — uplifted, incised by rivers
Plains
Definition: extensive low-relief surfaces, often near sea level.
Process: Long-term erosion and sediment deposition by rivers, wind, or the sea.
- Great Plains (USA/Canada) — fluvial deposition
- Pampas (Argentina/Uruguay) — grassland plain
- Indo-Gangetic Plain (South Asia) — Himalayan sediments
Deserts & Sand Dunes
Definition: arid regions with sparse vegetation; dunes are wind-built sand ridges.
Process: High-pressure belts, rain shadows, cold currents reduce rainfall; wind sorts and piles sand.
- Sahara (N. Africa) — subtropical high-pressure desert
- Atacama (Chile) — cold-current & rain shadow
- Namib Dunes (Namibia) — coastal dune fields
Valleys & Canyons
Definition: elongated low areas; canyons are deeply incised valleys with steep walls.
Process: River incision and mass wasting; glaciers carve U-shaped valleys.
- Grand Canyon (USA) — fluvial incision of uplifted plateau
- Great Rift Valley (East Africa) — tectonic rift valley
- Yosemite Valley (USA) — glacial U-shaped valley
Coastal Cliffs & Fjords
Definition: steep sea-facing slopes; fjords are glacially carved inlets.
Process: Wave erosion forms cliffs; glaciers carve deep valleys later flooded by the sea.
- Cliffs of Moher (Ireland) — wave-cut cliffs
- Sognefjord (Norway) — classic fjord
- Milford Sound (New Zealand) — glacial fiord
Rivers, Deltas & Estuaries
Definition: rivers transport water & sediment; deltas build land at river mouths; estuaries are tidal, mixing zones.
Process: Deposition occurs where flow slows (lakes/sea); tides & waves reshape mouths.
- Nile Delta (Egypt) — classic arcuate delta
- Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta (Bangladesh/India) — tide-influenced
- Chesapeake Bay (USA) — drowned-river estuary
Isthmus, Strait & Peninsulas
Definition: isthmus—narrow land link; strait—narrow sea link; peninsula—land jutting into water.
Process: Tectonics and sea-level changes sculpt coastlines; erosion isolates headlands.
- Isthmus of Panama — connects N. & S. America
- Strait of Gibraltar — Atlantic–Mediterranean link
- Florida Peninsula (USA) — low-lying carbonate platform
Archipelagos & Atolls
Definition: archipelago—group of islands; atoll—ring-shaped coral reef around a lagoon.
Process: Volcanic island chains over hotspots or arcs; coral grows on sinking volcanoes, leaving a ring.
- Indonesia — volcanic island arc
- Azores (Portugal) — mid-ocean ridge islands
- Maldives — coral atolls
Glaciers & Karst
Definition: glaciers—moving ice masses; karst—landscapes from dissolved limestone/dolomite.
Process: Glaciers erode by plucking & abrasion; mildly acidic water dissolves carbonate rock creating caves, sinkholes.
- Greenland Ice Sheet — continental glacier
- Patagonia Glaciers (Chile/Argentina) — valley glaciers
- Guilin Karst (China) — tower karst
Mesas & Buttes
Definition: flat-topped, steep-sided remnants; buttes are smaller than mesas.
Process: Differential erosion leaves resistant caprock perched above softer layers.
- Monument Valley (USA) — iconic buttes
- Table Mountain (South Africa) — mesa-like form
- Cape Verde plateau remnants — volcanic tablelands